Nano Packaging and its Potential Application: A Review

Introduction

goods are packed and hygienically transported to guard and conserve them from any unacceptable change in quality before reaching the end consumer. Food packaging continues to evolve along with the brain child in material knowledge and technology as well as in light of consumer’s demand. Presently the contemporary consumers of competitive providence demand for food with natural quality, assured safety, minutest processing, extended shelf life and ready to eat generalization. Innovative packaging systems not only ascertains ride preservation and effective distribution, but also facilitates communication at the consumer statuses. Nanotechnology manipulates and creates nano meter scale stuff, of saleable and scientific pertinence. Importance of nanoscience in food packaging industry has been prioritized due to safety and stability issues. Further nanotechnology predicated packaging intimate’s consumers about the real time quality of food product.

Methods of Manufacturing

Nanomaterials can be produced through two broad approaches known as top-down and jewel- bottom-up. The top-down approach is generally used for recovering inorganic stuff through traditional systems matching as milling, grinding, raising, and chemical responses. Homogenization is a representative of a top-down system that utilizes pressure to reduce the size of stuff matching as fat globules. Milling mechanically reduces the size of stuff to meliorate their functions. The bottom-up approach involves the assembly of lower patches through nature- institute, affecting in the layout of supra-molecular structures which retain unheardof functionalities. Solvent evaporation and scale by scale settlings are representatives of the bottom-up approach, which is normally employed in food uses using members matching as phospholipids.

Different Nanoparticles in Nanopackaging

i) Silver Nanoparticles

Ag nanoparticles can attach to the surface of the cell and damage lipo-polysaccharides, thus forming a quarry within the cell membrane. The combination of Ag nanoparticles into plastic polymers for packaging can be executed in quite a few diverse methods. For example, silver ions can be deposited or trapped in the porous zeolite, and these materials can then be applied to plastics. They have antimicrobial, anti-yeasts, anti-fungal, and antiviral activities as they have a larger surface area per mass compared to micro-scale silver particles or bulk silver content. Active nanocomposite along with the combination of heat treatment has proved to be an effective antimicrobial nanomaterial.

ii) Nano Clay

The pattern of nano clay dispersion in the polymer matrix is classified into three categories: tactoid, intercalated, or exfoliated. It has been described bio-composite films prepared with Agar and Nanoclay (Cloisite-Na+) and demonstrated that nanoclay greatly influences tensile strength, water vapor permeability, and hydrophobic behaviour of agar films. Nano clay enhances the physical properties of plastic packaging preventing the accumulation of gas and moisture inside the packaging. Nano clay composites have an interpolated form, depending on the grade of nanoparticles diffusion in the polymer medium. Exfoliated nanoclay clusters readily lose their tendency to agglomerate and are separated into single flakes, thereby facilitating dispersion of the Nanoparticles in a polymer matrix. The interpolated method varieties only a restrained level of dispersion of clay into the polymer matrix. Therefore, exfoliated nanoparticles exhibit proper blockade phenomenon and strengthening properties.

iii) Nano Zinc Oxide

Zinc oxide-Nanoparticles also exhibit diverse morphologies and shows robust inhibition against growth of broad-spectrum bacterial species. It has been reported that the antibacterial activity of zinc oxide-nanoparticles on Salmonella typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry meat and the potential activity of these nano-zinc oxide-Nanoparticles can protect the food from bacterial contamination. Studies has found that zinc oxide nanoparticles act better against Pseudomonas species, Shewanella putrefaciens Acinetobacter and Moraxella than other metal oxides. Compared to silver Nanoparticles, zinc oxidenanoparticles are predominantly striking for packaging applications because it is more affordable and less toxic to animals and humans. Furthermore, because of the anti-bacterial quality shown by zinc oxide nanoparticles they have the capability to produce significant amount of hydrogen peroxide when exposed to UV irradiation thus resulting in oxidative stress of bacterial cells.

iv) Titanium Nanoparticles

Titanium nanomaterials tends alter the properties of biodegradable films and are considered to be less expensive, light stable and non-hazardous. TiO2 is inert and non-toxic to human, it can oxidize the unsaturated poly-phospholipid component of a microbial cell membrane, thereby resulting in a biocidal effect. Several studies performed on the antimicrobial effects of TiO2 suggested that, under sunlight or ultraviolet light, TiO2 damages the cell membrane of the microorganisms by producing reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as H202, superoxide anions and hydroxyl radicals.

v) Nano Silica

Nano-silica is primarily used during hydrophobic coatings, particularly for materials which are self-cleaning. A non-adhesive covering of nano silica can make the food and food products into a free-flowing material of nature inside the containers. Goods that profit from this technology include alcoholic beverages and instant soup mixes. Growth of super aquaphobic paperboard by covering Aerosil silica nanoparticles exhibited protuberant ability of water repellancy resulting in lotus-like surface created by nanosized silica. Some articles specifically analysed a number of nanomaterials that are currently used or researched for food packaging [1-8].

Conclusion

Through bettered outlook of nanomaterials and the realization of their eventuality in the food diligence the influx of nanotechnology in foods will give results for persisting problems associated with foods and will offer long name profitable benefits. Technically nations will be benefited from increased food productivity with cost effective returns, innovative products with tunable parcels to deliver smarter and healthier foods and inversely intelligent packaging systems having enhanced storehouse parcels for better food protection. In conclusion nanomaterials in foods will have a huge impact on sustainability and will be accompanied by health and environmental benefits if regulated duly.

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Assessment of Public Knowledge and Attitude towards Chronic Kidney Disease by Using a Validated Questionnaire: An Observational Study

Introduction

According to Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes, chronic kidney disease is defined as any abnormalities of kidney structure or function, present for greater than 3 months, with implications for health, and requires one of two criteria documented or inferred for greater than 3 months: either GFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m2 or albuminuria level (AER ≥30 mg/24 hours; ACR ≥30 mg/g [≥3 mg/mmol]) which is considered as a marker of kidney damage. Chronic kidney disease, being a condition that affects a large number of populations, the prevalence consistently ranges from 11% to 13% with majority in stage 3 (eGFR 30–59): 7.6% (95% CI; 6·4–8·9). The estimated worldwide gender specific prevalence of CKD is 10.4% in men (95% CI; 9.3 to 11.9) and 11.8% in women (95% CI; 11.2 to 12.6). It is Implicit, that future research must focus on evaluating such strategies that can help to prevent the progression of chronic kidney disease and improve cardiovascular disease outcomes [1]. Chronic kidney disease increases the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and premature mortality among the patients which substantially decrease the quality of life. This risk increases as chronic kidney disease advances to higher stages and worsening of excretory function (usually manifest as declining glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and increasing proteinuria) [2]. Chronic kidney disease is also associated with age-related renal function decline accelerated by hypertension, diabetes, obesity and primary renal disorders [3]. CKD also shares an appearance of glomerulosclerosis, vascular sclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis, which advocates a common final pathway of progressive injury. [4] One of the major challenges regarding chronic kidney disease is, it is asymptomatic in its early stages, its progression to end stage renal disease occurs over a period of several years and delayed diagnosis. Therefore, strategies to reduce the progression to end-stage renal disease require effective methods of screening early in the disease process [5]. Compared with patients who had early evaluation, the risk for death is found to be greater among patients evaluated late [6]. Early screening and detection thus help physicians to structure and implement a treatment strategy that will well fit to reduce the progression of the disease and comorbidities [7]. Early referral resulted in cost savings and improved patient survival along with more life-years free of RRT and fewer hospital inpatient days [8].

According to a report from the National Health Service (NHS) India, treating kidney disease costs more than skin, lung, and breast cancer combined. Early diagnosis of CKD thus helps to minimize the economic burden imparted to the patient [9]. In India, there is one doctor for every 1,445 Indians as per the country’s current population estimate of 135 crores, which is lower than the WHO’s prescribed norm of one doctor for 1,000 people. Public awareness is considered as an important determinant of the uptake of screening programs. However, there is scarcity of the data with respect to public knowledge. Public awareness can play a significant role in the early detection and diagnosis of chronic kidney disease which can save enormous amount of spending on healthcare. In this backdrop, this study focusses to assess the knowledge and attitude towards chronic kidney disease among general public in northern part of India.

Materials and Methods

Study Design

This cross-sectional study was conducted by employing a self-administered questionnaire to assess the knowledge and attitude towards chronic kidney disease among general public. The questionnaire consists of a total 30 questions pertaining to knowledge, and attitude towards chronic kidney disease. The complete assessment took 6 minutes to read and answer. This study was carried out in full compliance with the ethical standards provided by the Indian Council of Medical Research to carry out such study. The experimental protocol had the approval from the ethics committee of the concerned institute. The informed consent has been received prior to enrolling from all the participants.

Data Collection

This study was conducted in full compliance with the ethical standards provided by Indian council of medical research to carry out such study. The experimental protocol had the approval from the institutional ethics committee (IEC/43/2019). The verbal and written explanation of the study was performed; and the written informed document from participants prior to enrolling subjects in the study was obtained. The study was conducted from 22nd April 2020 to 8th April 2021 among Indian adults. The data collection was done through various electronic platforms and offline as well. The questionnaire included an introduction regarding the objectives, choice of participation, declarations of confidentiality and anonymity. The inclusion criteria included Indian nationality, age of 18 years or above, and willingness to participate in the study.

Measures

The questionnaire consists of four sections: questions pertaining to demographics (included age, gender, height (cm), weight (kg), residence, education, marital status, occupation and family history), knowledge, and attitudes towards chronic kidney disease. The knowledge section consists of 13 multiple-choice questions which could be answered as “Yes”, “No” or “I don’t know”. Every correct answer was awarded with 1 mark and an incorrect or unknown answer was assigned with 0 marks. The total knowledge score ranged from 0 to 13, with a higher score denoting a better knowledge of chronic kidney disease and vice-versa. The attitudes section consists of 10 multiple-choice questions which could be answered as “agree”, “disagree” or “I don’t know”. All the responses were recorded and coded accordingly later on. Final data were used to assess internal consistency reliability using Cronbach’s coefficient. The value of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was 0.87, which is well above the acceptable threshold for internal consistency. The overall average chronic kidney disease knowledge score, were computed based upon the data received.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistical methods were majorly employed to summarize the data on demographic characteristics and responses to questions concerning knowledge and attitude towards chronic kidney disease. The data was summarized as frequencies (n) and percentages (%) for categorical variables. Knowledge on chronic kidney disease was assessed by calculating total cumulative knowledge score for each participant. A mean chronic kidney disease knowledge score with standard deviation was assigned for each demographic characteristic.

Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to identify factors associated with knowledge, All the demographic variables and knowledge score were considered as the independent variables and outcome variable respectively. To identify factors associated with attitudes, Multinomial logistic regression analyses were used. Unstandardized regression coefficients (β) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used to quantify the associations between variables and attitudes. Likewise, to identify factors associated with practices, binary logistic regression analyses were used. Odds ratios (ORs) and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were considered to quantify the associations between variables and practices. Factors were selected with a backward selection procedure in a stepwise regression analysis. Data analyses were performed using SPSS (Statistical package for social sciences) version 25.0. The p<0.05 was considered as “statistically significant”.

Results

A total of 507 participants completed the online and offline questionnaire based cross-sectional study. A majority of participants were male (67.7%), lived in the rural areas (53.5%), had either a bachelor’s or master’s degree (77.4%), and did not have a family history of kidney stones (91.9%). The value of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the questionnaire was 0.87, which is well above the acceptable threshold for internal consistency. Demographic characteristics and mean chronic kidney disease knowledge scores of participants are shown in Table 1. The mean chronic kidney disease knowledge score of all the study participants was 16.49 (SD = ± 7.0), with scores ranging from 0 to 29. The mean knowledge score of participants from the state of Jammu & Kashmir was nearly 40% less than the participants from other states of India. Also, participants with master’s degree or above had the highest mean chronic kidney disease knowledge score (20.0) among all the demographic variables. Table 2 represents the percentage of correct responses by study participants to individual items on the knowledge section of the questionnaire. Most participants (81.3%) were aware that a person can lead a normal healthy life with only one kidney. While 20.1% of participants believe chronic kidney disease cannot be effectively treated with herbal supplements. Majority of participants knew about the functions of kidneys such as urine formation (83.2%), blood cleansing (78.3%), and maintaining blood pressure (71.4%); however, only few responded that kidneys can keep the bones healthy (35.1%).

Table 1: Demographic characteristics and mean CKD knowledge scores of participants (N=507).

Note: Values in bold are above the overall mean chronic kidney disease knowledge score.
N, number of participants; CKD, chronic kidney disease; SD, standard deviation; ROI, rest of India.

Table 2.

Note: *True items.

Many participants identified that a urine test (85.4%) or a blood test (62.9%) is used to determine the health of the kidneys. Only 6.5% of participants responded that high blood pressure is a risk factor for chronic kidney disease while only 10.84% knew that excess stress is not a risk factor. Whereas diabetes was recognised as a risk factor by 71.2% of participants. Most participants had knowledge about the disease progression of chronic kidney disease (77.5%) and its fatality (77.9%); nearly 80% knew that smoking, alcohol intake and high blood pressure worsen kidney disease in diabetic people. Table 3 shows the percentage of different responses by study participants to individual items on the attitude section of the questionnaire. Two-third of the participants understand that a kidney function test is necessary even when there are no signs of chronic kidney disease. Nearly 42% of participants did not have any idea about the cost of a kidney screening test. According to majority of participants (87.4%), people with diabetes and kidney disease should stringently adhere to medical advice provided to them by doctors. Most participants (83.3%) were found interested in knowing the health status of their kidneys. As Figure 1 suggests, the distribution of CKD knowledge scores among the participants of study, nearly 65% of participants had a knowledge score in the range of 17 to 24.

Table 3: Percentage of different responses to individual items on the attitude section of questionnaire by study participants.

Figure 1: Distribution of CKD knowledge scores among the participants of study (N=507).

This depicts that most participants had a good amount of knowledge regarding chronic kidney disease. A multiple linear regression was run to predict CKD knowledge score from gender, education, participants working outside home, state and a family history of kidney failure. These variables significantly predicted CKD knowledge score, F (8, 498) = 94.787, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.604. All five variables added statistically significantly to the prediction, p < 0.05. Table 4 shows the results of the standard multiple regression analysis between CKD knowledge score and participant characteristics. The multivariate analysis shows higher knowledge scores associated with a higher level of education, such as holding a postgraduate degree, bachelor degree or completing the school. Unemployed participants had significantly lower knowledge level for CKD than those employed. Participants who are single/ never married had significantly higher knowledge scores than participants who are within a relationship (married). Participants from the state of Jammu & Kashmir were found to have significantly lower knowledge score for chronic kidney disease as compared to rest of India. No difference was found in the knowledge scores of participants with and without a family history of kidney stone.

Table 4: Multiple regression analysis between participant characteristics and CKD knowledge score.

Note: aReference; P values in bold are statistically significant P values (p < 0.05).
CKD, chronic kidney disease; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; ROI, rest of India.

Discussion

Conservative management as a treatment alternative to dialysis and kidney transplant is getting more recognition in the United States. The Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) highly advocates conservative management as a supportive care in chronic kidney disease and also a priority to improve patientcentered care. The results from this study demonstrate that there is a good amount of knowledge regarding chronic kidney disease. Participants with master’s degree or above had the highest mean CKD knowledge score (20.0) among all the demographic variables, similarly our findings were aligned with those of (Stanifer, et al, [10]) and (Khalil, et al, [11]), which also showed, education level is a key determinant for the awareness about chronic kidney disease. The overall knowledge score, about chronic kidney disease and its risk factors was found to be higher in this study as compared to what was found by (Kumela, et al, [12]), in Ethiopian study; however, the sample size in this study was smaller in comparison to our study. This study reported that the kidney’s function of keeping the bones healthy had lower knowledge score, other kidney functions had comparatively better knowledge scores (Table 4). This study also suggests majority of participants believed that people with diabetes and kidney disease should stringently adhere to medical advice provided to them by doctors. Also, most participants were found interested in knowing the health status of their kidneys, which confirms that the attitude towards chronic kidney disease and related outcomes is significantly good. The management of chronic kidney disease is very challenging as patients are mostly asymptomatic during the early stages of disease, its inevitable progression to higher stages and its late diagnosis. Therefore, strategies to reduce the incidence of end-stage renal disease require effective methods of early screening in the disease process [5]. Early detection of chronic kidney disease allows implementation of treatments and strategies that can influence both progression of kidney disease and cardiovascular health [7]. The costs of treatment for chronic kidney disease in India consumes a lot of capital [13]. High blood pressure as a risk factor was associated with a low knowledge score. The economic burden of hypertension imparts in Indian population is quite high and adds to the lifelong expenditure on antihypertensive drugs [14]. The gap in knowledge related to blood pressure was also alike with a study in Saudi Arabia [15]. Earlier detection and improved knowledge about chronic kidney disease and its risk factors will significantly delay the progression of disease and save a lot of out-of-pocket expenditure in India.

Conclusion

To conclude, our findings suggest that Indian adults demonstrated good knowledge and a positive attitude regarding chronic kidney disease, which is important to prevent the disease and early detection. However, knowledge was lower among older adults and less educated groups will improve the outcomes and delay the progression and the costs associated with the treatment. The study findings will help healthcare providers to understand the extent of knowledge and attitude towards CKD and thus provide relevant education to patient and family members. The kidney’s function of keeping the bones healthy had lower knowledge score, other kidney functions had comparatively better knowledge scores. The multivariate analysis found higher knowledge scores associated with a higher level of education.

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Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Tract Nematodes Parasites in Sheep in Hawasa Town, Southern Ethiopia

Introduction

Sheep and goats are the most numerous of man’s domesticated livestock and are especially important in more extreme climates of the world. Over two-thirds of the total population of sheep and goats occur in the less developed countries where they often provide major contribution to farming enterprises [1]. In Ethiopia, sheep are the second most important livestock species next to cattle and ranks second in Africa and sixth in the world in sheep population [2]. With its great variation in climate and topography, the country possesses one of the largest livestock populations in the world, which is managed by smallholder farmers under extensive low input traditional management system and adjunct to crop production [3]. Ethiopia’s sheep population estimated that 29.3 million heads is found widely distributed across the diverse agro ecological zones of the country [4]. Approximately 75% of the sheep are kept in small scale mixed farms in the highland regions, while the remaining 25% are found in the lowlands. Sheep are traditionally kept in small holdings and are associated with the small-scale resource poor livestock keepers [5].

In Ethiopia sheep and their products provide direct cash in come through the sale of live sheep and skin. Sheep are living bank for their owners and serve as source of immediate cash need and insurance against crop failure especially where land productivity is low and erratic rainfall, sever erosion, frost and water logging problems. Thus sheep in the small holder farming system provide continuous service to the economic stability and effective operation of the crop production system [6]. Under Ethiopian condition livestock are maintained as a principal activity in pastoral systems of productions, as 50% of house hold revenue comes from livestock or more than 20% of house hold food energy is derived directly from livestock. In recent years’ pastoralists have shown an increasing interest in keeping larger numbers of sheep and goats. Milk and meat are the two outputs. Pastoralists, also depend on their livestock not only for their income but also for their survival. Consequently, risk avoidance is very important to the pastoralist. Livestock management therefore directed towards risk minimization, which tends to reduce productivity [7].

Inspite of the numerical and economic importance of sheep in Ethiopia, productivity is generally low due to inadequate nutrition, poor reproductive performance, diseases and poor management. The recurrent loss in productivity and income is often due to parasitic infections particularly helminthes infections, which are common and considered as one of the major problems in small ruminant productions [8]. Gastrointestinal nematodes cause direct loss through mortality in heavily parasitized animals, especially in young animals as well as cost incurred in treating and controlling nematodes infection. It is well established that parasitized animals perform less efficiently feed conversion adversely affected which reduces carcass quality and quantity and wool growth resulting in further financial penalties [9]. Even though, the estimation of economic loss due to nematodes is limited to lack of accurate estimation of disease prevalence, the rough estimate of annual losses due to Endoparasites in Ethiopia is estimated to be $ 83million.

Such losses in sheep production should definitely be minimized through parasitic control programs [10]. In some parts of Ethiopia, surveys have been made on the prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes parasites which most of the information obtained is from abattoir survey and animals managed on stations. Owing to the basic limitation in scope and coverage of most of the studies conducted in Ethiopia, sound nematodes control strategy has not yet been established in the country. Therefore, the epidemiology of gastro-intestinal (GIT) parasites in livestock varied depending on the local climatic condition, such as humidity, temperature, rainfall, vegetation and management practices. These factors largely determine the incidence and severity of various parasitic diseases [11]. Therefore, it is important to assess the type and level of parasitism in ruminant livestock, in order to determine the significance of parasite infestations and to recommend the most beneficial and economically acceptable control.

To this effect there is no sufficient information on prevalence rate of gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep in Hawasa town and also gastrointestinal nematodes infection still remains an important disease problem of sheep in this area. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to determine the prevalence rate of sheep GIT nematodes in Hawasa town, to identify the GIT nematode types of egg involved in infection and infestation level of sheep in same town and to identify risk factor associated with the occurrence of GIT nematodes.

Methods and Materials

Study Area

The study was conducted in Hawasa town from November 2018 to April 2019, which is the capital of SNNPR, located in the Northern part of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and People’s Region (SNNPR), which is located 275 km south of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. Geographically, the area lies between 7°06° North latitude and 38°48° East longitude. Agricultural production system is of mixed crop-livestock production. In rural areas, mainly local breeds are found, grazing on communal land. The area was selected on the basis of livestock production potential and the presence of different livestock species and breeds. The selected area represents typical mixed crop-livestock production system of the Rift Valley area of Ethiopia. Annual average rainfall of Hawasa town is ranging from 800 to 1000mm and with a mean temperature ranging from 20-25°C and situated at an elevation of 1697 meter above sea level [12].

Description of Study Population

The target population for this study was all sheep population in Hawasa town. The study animals include local breeds of sheep including all age groups and both sexes that were selected from the target population.

Study Design

A cross section study design was conducted from November 2018 to April 2019 in Hawasa town to address the main objective of the study.

Sample Size and Sampling Methods

Systematic sampling was followed to select the animals and collect feces from sheep from their rectum at the field. The sample size was decided based on the prevalence of the disease in the sheep of the town using formula described by [13] with 95% confidence interval and at 5% desired absolute precision and by assuming that the expected prevalence of GIT nematodes is 50% since there was no documentation on its prevalence rate yet in the district. The estimated sample size was 384 according to the following formula:

Study Methodology

Cross sectional study method was employed to collect fecal samples directly from the rectum of each sheep and placed in screw capped glass bottles (universal bottle) and prevent the feces from drying out and then brought to Hawassa University Veterinary Parasitology Laboratory for coprological investigation through appropriate labeling of parameters like sex, age, body condition score, conjunctiva of mucous membrane, management system of sampled animal, date, season of sample collection and place of sample collection were simultaneously recorded while fecal sample taking. The collected samples were subjected to qualitative flotation and quantitative McMaster egg counting parasitological techniques using saturated sodium chloride (specific gravity of 1.2) as flotation fluid. The eggs of parasite species were identified using keys given by [14]. Samples that became positive for gastrointestinal nematode were subjected to EPG counting to determine the number of egg per gram of feces (EPG) and performed according to the procedure described [15]. The degree of infection was categorized as light, moderate and severe (massive) according to their egg per gram of faeces (EPG) counts. Egg counts from 50-799, 800-1200 and over 1200 eggs per gram of feces were considered as light, moderate and (severe) massive infection, respectively [16].

Data Management and Analysis

Data collected from each study animals and study areas were entered into Microsoft Excels spread sheet and then analyzed with STATA-11 statistical software. Chi-square test was used to compare association between independent variables (sex, age, body condition scores, management system, season of sample collection) with the result. Statistically significant association between variable was considered to be exist if the computed P-value is less than 0.05.

Results

Overall Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Sheep

Of the total 384 sheep examined, 197 (51.3%) were found infected with different types of gastro-intestinal nematodes. Of the total positive cases, 139 (36.2%) were infected with strongyles, 10 (2.6%) were infected with Strongyloides species. and 48 (12.5%), were infected with strongyles and strongyloides species (Table 1).

Table 1: Prevalence of gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep encountered in the study area.

Prevalence of the GIT Nematodes Species by Different Age Groups

Of the total 384 of sheep examined coprologically for gastrointestinal nematode eggs, 197(51.3%) were found positive. The prevalence was 63 (43.8%) in young, 83 (52%) in adult and 105(63%) in old. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode between the different ages (Table 2).

Table 2: Prevalence of GIT nematode based on different risk factors.

Prevalence of GIT Nematodes Species by Sex Groups

Of the total 384 of sheep examined coprologically for gastrointestinal nematode eggs, 197 (51.3%) were found positive. The prevalence was 105(59.7%) in male and 92(44.2%) in female. There was significant difference (P < 0.05) in prevalence of gastrointestinal nematode between the two sexes (Table 2).

Prevalence of the GIT Nematodes Species by Different Body Condition Score

Of the total 384 sheep examined, 105, 202 and 77 were categorized as having poor, medium and good body condition scores, respectively. Infection prevalence was significantly higher in animal with poor body condition when compared to that of medium and good body condition scores (P<0.05). The overall infection prevalence according to body condition grades, 74.2%, 47.5% and 29.9% with poor, medium and good, respectively (Table 2).

Prevalence of GIT Nematodes by Management System

Based on the types of management system; prevalence was 38 (33%) from intensive, 28 (33.7%) semi intensive and 135 (72.6%) from extensive animals. The difference in isolation rate of different nematodes eggs based on management system was statistically significant (P<0.05) (Table 2).

Prevalence of GIT Nematodes Based on Conjunctival Mucous Membrane

Based on Conjunctiva of mucous membrane of animals; prevalence was isolated 137(50.7%) pink and 90(78.9%) for pale. The difference in isolation rate of different nematodes eggs based on Conjunctiva of mucous membrane was not statistically significant (P>0.05) (Table 2).

Prevalence of GIT Nematodes Based on Season

Based on season of sample collection; prevalence was isolated 99(48.8%) rate from dry season and 90(54.1%) wet season. The difference in isolation rate of different nematodes eggs based on season of sample collection was not statistically significant (P>0.05) (Table 2).

The results of quantitative faecal examination using the modified Mc Master technique for GIT nematodes of 197 infected sheep were 73 (37.1%), 57 (28.9%) and 67 (34 %) for light, moderate and heavy infection, respectively. Most of the infected sheep had a faecal egg count in a range of 50 to 800 EPG and more (Table 3).

Table 3: Level of infestation GIT nematode.

Discussion

The gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep are one of the important parasitic diseases that obviously result in reduced productivity of sheep raised by smallholders using traditional husbandry management system in and around Hawasssa. The coprological examination done for this study using direct faecal floatation method revealed an overall gastrointestinal infection prevalence of GIT nematodes of sheep in Hawassa district was 51.3%. This result was lower than that found in Asella 68.1% [17] and in Meskan district, Gurage zone 76.3% [18]. These relative differences in prevalence of nematode parasites may arise due to existence of different climatic or environmental factors that could support survival and development of infective larval stage of most nematodes [19]. The present study shows 36.2% strongyles, 2.6% for strongyloides and 12.5% for both strongyles and strongyloides species. This finding was more or less agrees with the report of previous study conducted in Dembia district, Northwest part of Ethiopia 41.9% strongyle species [20]. However, this finding disagrees with previous studies Bedelle 66.6% strongyles type and 3.3% Trichuris species [21], 70.2% strongyles type and 4.5% Trichuris species in Western Oromia [22] and also this report was much lower than 97.03% strongyles type, 45.22% strongyloides and 30.25% Trichuris species in eastern part of Ethiopia [23]. The current study has shown the presence of mixed infection characterized by the presence of two or more nematodes genera in sheep and this is in agreement with the findings of other researchers in some parts of the country [19,22-26].

This study showed that strongyles having direct life cycle were the most prominent among those that were higher prevalence in gastrointestinal nematode parasites of animals. In this study, a significant difference was observed in nematodes infection in relation to body condition where a higher prevalence of nematodes was recorded in poor body condition animals when compared to other groups. This agrees with [27] this poor body condition might be due the current parasitic infection which lead to poor immunological response to infective stage of the parasites. Difference in body condition score was statistically significant (P< 0.05) with gastrointestinal nematode infection such that shedding of nematodes eggs increased with poor body condition (74.2%) than in good body condition (29.9%). This finding agrees with [28] who suggest that well-fed animals develop good immunity that suppresses the fecundity of the parasites. In the present study, when infection rate on age was subjected to analysis, animals with old age seems to have slightly higher prevalence of nematodes, which could be related to their higher susceptibility to infection than young age animals but it was not statistically significant (p>0.05).

This can be attributed to the failure of acquired immunity in old age animals. A similar finding of higher intensity of infection in older sheep has also been reported from a study in semi-arid parts of Kenya [29]. On the contrary, [30] have documented that adult and old animals develop acquired immunity against helminth infections as they get mature due to repeated exposure. The overall prevalence of nematodes was higher in males than females in sheep and it was statistically significant (p>0.05). This might be due to male sheep move a long distance to search female for mating or searching feeds which expose them to larval infected area and contact feaces. It is assumed that sex is a determinant factor influencing prevalence of parasitism [31]. However, In this present study did not agrees with previous report prevalence of nematode was higher in females than in males because females are more prone to parasitism during pregnancy and per-parturient period due to stress and decreased immune status [15].

The overall prevalence of nematodes in different season was 98 (54.1%) from 181 sample in wet season and 99 (48.8%) from 203 sample in dry season. In this present study agrees with previous reports the high prevalence of parasites in wet season around the world [32-35]. The wet season was made the environmental conditions more favorable for the development and survival of parasitic stages and led to increased availability of infective larvae in the rainy and post rainy season. It is well documented that gastrointestinal parasitism in grazing animals is directly related to the availability of larvae on pasture and seasonal pasture contamination [36]. The overall prevalence of nematodes in different grazing system was higher in extensive (72.6%) than in intensive (33%) management system. It was significant for prevalence (p<0.05) of gastrointestinal nematode infections. The higher prevalence nematode parasites found in extensive management system could indicate that animals have frequent exposure to communal grazing pasture that has been contaminated by feaces infected animals.

In this study disagrees with report with [37] in open grazing system; the low prevalence observed could indicate that animals freely grazed in the extensive grazing field had less exposure to infective larvae on the pasture. From studied animals 37.1% lightly, 28.9% moderately and 34% were severely infected. The present finding showed heavily infected sheep during the rainy season and in most traditional system, where animals are kept extensively, fecal contaminations and infective stages are spread over a large area and heavy infections occurred. This study agrees with the idea reported by [38].

Conclusion and Recommendations

In general, high prevalence of strongyles and stronyloides species of nematodes parasites were found in the study area. Those high gastrointestinal nematodes parasite indicates to be important health problem of sheep. Strongyles and stronyloides species combining with the prominent risk factors like management system, season, sex and body condition leads to major problems that hampered efficient utilization of the available sheep resources, manifested by reduced rate of reproduction as well as severe economic impact due to slower growth rate or death of infected individuals.

Based on the above conclusive remarks, the following recommendations are forwarded:

a) Strategic anthelminthic deworming should be given at the beginning of wet season and at the end of dry season.

b) Adoption of intensive management system should be introduced in order to avoiding communal grazing.

c) Definitive diagnosis should be conducted by clearly isolating and identifying parasitic infection through coprological examination in the study area.

d) Further study should be carried out on the efficacy and the anthelminthic resistance.

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